A kind of elastic tissue makes up each muscle, which consists of thousands, or tens of thousands, of small muscle fibers. Each fiber comprises many tiny strands called fibrils.

Impulses from nerve cells control the contraction of each muscle fiber. A muscle’s strength depends mainly on how many fibers are present.

To fuel a muscle, the body makes adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which muscle cells turn into mechanical energy.

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Types of muscle

The body has over 600 muscles.

Humans and other vertebrates have three typesTrusted Source of muscle: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.

Skeletal muscles

Skeletal muscles move the external parts of the body and the limbs. They cover the bones and give the body its shape.

As skeletal muscles only pull in one direction, they work in pairs. When one muscle in the pair contracts, the other expands, and this facilitates movement.

The muscles attach to strong tendons, which either attach to or directly connect with the bones. The tendons extend over the joints, and this helps keep the joints stable. A person in good health can consciously control their skeletal muscles.

Most visible body movements — such as running, walking, talking, and moving the eyes, head, limbs, or digits — occur when the skeletal muscles contract.

Skeletal muscles also control all facial expressions, including smiles, frowns, and mouth and tongue movements.

Skeletal muscles are continually making tiny adjustments to maintain the body’s posture. They keep a person’s back straight or hold their head in one position. Together with the tendons, they keep the bones in the right position so that the joints do not dislocate.

Skeletal muscles also generate heat when they contract and release, and this helps maintain body temperature. Nearly 85%Trusted Source of the heat that the body produces comes from muscle contraction.

Types of skeletal muscle

The two main types of skeletal muscle are slow-twitch and fast-twitch.

Type I, red, or slow-twitch muscles

These are dense and rich in myoglobin and mitochondria. They have capillaries, which give them their red color. This type of muscle can contract for a long time without much effort. Type I muscles can sustain aerobic activity using carbohydrates and fats as fuel.

Type II, white, or fast-twitch muscles

These muscles can contract rapidly and with a lot of force. The contraction is strong but short-lived. This type of muscle is responsible for most of the body’s muscle strength and its increase in mass after periods of weight training. Compared with slow-twitch muscle, it is less dense in myoglobin and mitochondria.

Striated muscles

Skeletal muscles are striated, which means that they consist of thousands of equally sized sarcomeres, or muscle units, which have transverse bands. A striated muscle appears striped under a microscope because of these bands.

When the bands in the sarcomeres relax or contract, the whole muscle extends or relaxes.

Different bands within each muscle interact, allowing the muscle to move powerfully and smoothly.

Smooth muscles

Smooth musclesTrusted Source are responsible for movements in the stomach, intestines, blood vessels, and hollow organs. The smooth muscles in the bowel are also called visceral muscles.

These muscles work automatically, with a person being unaware that they are using them. Unlike skeletal muscles, they do not depend on conscious thought.

Many different bodily movements depend on smooth muscle contractions. These include the intestinal walls pushing food forward, the uterus contracting during childbirth, and the pupils shrinking and expanding to accommodate the amount of light available.

Smooth muscles are also present within the walls of the bladder and the bronchi. The arrector pili muscles in the skin, which make the hair stand up, also comprise smooth muscle fibers.

Cardiac muscles

Cardiac musclesTrusted Source are responsible for the heartbeat and only exist in the heart.

These muscles work automatically without stopping, day and night. They are similar in structure to the skeletal muscles, so doctors sometimes classify them as striated muscles.

The cardiac muscles contract so that the heart can squeeze out blood and then relax so that it can fill up with blood again.

What can go wrong with muscles?

A wide range of problems can arise with muscles.

Some common ones are:

• A muscle cramp, or Charley horse: These can result from dehydration, low levels of potassium or magnesium, some neurologic or metabolic disorders, and certain drugs.

• Congenital muscle abnormalities: Some people are born with muscles or groups of muscles that are not properly developed. These abnormalities can be an isolated problem or part of a syndrome.

• Muscle weakness: Problems with the nervous system can impair the transmission of messages between the brain and muscles.

Muscle weakness

Muscle weakness can affect people with upper or lower motor neuron dysfunction or conditions such as myasthenia gravis that affect the area where the nerves join the muscle. Stroke, spinal cord compression, and multiple sclerosis can all also lead to muscle weakness.

If a person seeks medical help for muscle weakness, the doctor will carry out a physical examination and grade the strength of the person’s muscles before deciding whether additional tests are necessary.

They are likely to use the universal scaleTrusted Source for testing muscle strength:

• 0: No visible muscle contraction

• 1: Visible muscle contraction with no or trace movement

• 2: Movement with full range of motion, but not against gravity

• 3: Movement with full range of motion against gravity but not resistance

• 4: Movement with full range of motion against at least some resistance that the examiner supplies

• 5: Full strength

If a doctor finds evidence of muscle weakness, they may order tests to identify the underlying problem. The treatment will depend on the cause.

If there is muscle pain, this may be a sign of infection or injury.

A person can often relieve the symptoms of a muscle injury using the RICE method:

• Rest: Take a break from physical activity.

• Ice: Apply an ice pack for 20 minutes several times a day.

• Compression: A compression bandage can reduce swelling.

• Elevation: Raise the affected part of the body to reduce swelling.

If a person experiences extreme and unexplained muscle pain or muscle weakness, especially if they also have difficulty breathing, they should see a doctor as soon as possible.

Developing muscles through exercise

Developing muscles through exercise can improveTrusted Source balance, bone health, and flexibility, and it can enhance strength and stamina.

People can choose from a wide range of physical activity options, but there are two main typesTrusted Source of exercise: aerobic and anaerobic.

Aerobic exercise

Aerobic exercise sessions are typically of long duration and require medium-to-low levels of exertion. This type of exercise requires the body to use the muscles at well below their maximum strength capacity. A marathon is an example of an aerobic activity with a very long duration.

Aerobic activities rely mainly on the body’s aerobic, or oxygen, system. They use a higher proportion of the slow-twitch muscle fibers. Energy consumption comes from carbohydrates, fat, and protein, and the body produces high quantities of oxygen and very little lactic acid.

Anaerobic exercise

During anaerobic exercise, the muscles contract intensely at a level nearer to their maximum strength. Athletes who aim to improve their strength, speed, and power will focus more on this type of exercise.

A single anaerobic activity lasts from a few seconds to a maximum of 2 minutes. Examples include weightlifting, sprinting, climbing, and jumping rope.

Anaerobic exercise uses more fast-twitch muscle fibers. The main fuel sources are ATP or glucose, and the body uses less oxygen, fat, and protein. This type of activity produces high quantities of lactic acid.

Anaerobic exercises will make the body stronger, but aerobic exercises will make it fitter.

To maintain healthy muscles, it is important to get regular exercise and to eat a nutritious, balanced diet, if possible.

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics recommends doing muscle-strengthening exercises for the major muscle groups — meaning the legs, hips, chest, abdomen, back, shoulders, and arms — at least twice a week.

People can strengthen the muscles by lifting weights, using a resistance band, or doing everyday chores, such as gardening or carrying heavy groceries.

Protein, carbohydrates, and fat are necessary for building muscles. The Academy suggests that 10–35% of total calories should be protein.

It recommends good quality, low fat carbohydrates, such as wholemeal bread, plus low fat milk or yogurt. Although fiber is important, it suggests avoiding high fiber foods just before or during exercise.

Summary

The human body contains hundreds of muscles, of which there are three different types. Each type of muscle plays a different role in helping the body move and function properly.

Muscle cramps and weakness can indicate an underlying medical condition or injury. Some people are born with muscle groups that are not properly developed.

Medical professionals recommend exercise for developing muscle strength. Maintaining strength in the muscles is important for various factors, including balance, flexibility, and bone health.

Changes to cognitive function during the aging process are relatedTrusted Source to the brain’s white and gray matter volume.

Gray matter consists of biological structures, including neuronal cell bodies, synapses, and capillaries, whereas white matter consists of myelinated axons, through which signals are carried between neurons.

Gray matter volume steadily declinesTrusted Source at around 10 years of age. Research suggests that medically and cognitively healthier individuals experience less brain atrophy than less healthy individuals.

Studies also show that regular exerciseTrusted Source, strong relationships, and passion are key to maintaining a healthy brain during the aging process.

In a recent paper, researchers performed a thorough review of the extensive body of literature available on the link between brain physiology development, and physical activity, social relationships, and passion. Based on the evidence, they report that increased passion for an area or skill leads to more physical activity, more social relationships, and better well-being.

“[From our research], we have found that passion- or strong interest- may be a [key motivational factor for achievement and well-being] as it sets the direction of the arrow,“ Hermundur Sigmundsson, Ph.D., professor of psychology at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, the lead author, told Medical News Today.

“Therefore, we say: Find your passion and develop it! Grit, or perseverance, is the size and strength of the arrow. Find your interest area and focus on the process. [Be ready to] take challenges! Challenges are key for development!” he added.

The paper was recently published in a special issue of Brain Sciences.

Physical activity 

Observational studies indicate that an active lifestyle is helpful for maintaining cognitive and neurological health across age groups — especially in higher order processes such as switching between tasks, working memory, and cognitive inhibition.

The researchers noted in their paper that intervention studies had confirmed these findings.

For example, older adults who underwent 1 hour of aerobic training 3 times per week for 6 months had increased gray and white matter volume compared to controls.

Other research shows that physical activity increases functionality in brain areas linked to attention and attention control, daily life activities, and cognitive reserve, a reserve of thinking abilities that acts as a buffer against age-related cognitive decline.

Relationships 

The new paper points to studies that suggest that maintaining social ties enhances cognitive reserve through cognitive strategies, greater neural growth, and synaptic density, which protect against pathological processes.

Imaging studies have demonstrated that larger social networks are linked to a larger orbitofrontal cortex — involved in decision-making — and amygdala volume.

These studies also demonstrate that less socially active people have a greater number of white matter lesions.

In addition, randomized control trials have shown that social relations may enhance cognitive reserve, and interventions have shown that increased social interaction in communities is linked to better cognitive function and larger brain volume.

Other studies, however, indicate no link between social relations and cognitive function later in life. The researchers thus suggest that more robust evidence from randomized controlled trials is needed to demonstrate causality.

Passion 

In their paper, the researchers defined passion as “a strong feeling toward a personally important value/preference that motivates intentions and behaviors to express that value/preference.”

Other research has found that passion is related to more deliberate practice among football players and better well-being and performance among workers.

The researchers also noted that passion might thus be important for maintaining neural plasticity. They wrote: “…hence repetition, use it or lose it, use it and improve it and intensity.”

An example of this is someone who is passionate about learning new languages. The researchers wrote that passion could motivate an individual to practice the second language more and thus strengthen their gray matter, neural cells, and connections.

They also noted that psychological traits such as grit and a growth mindset have also been linkedTrusted Source to the development of gray matter in different parts of the brain.

The researchers further cited a number of articles that suggest impaired motor function, antisocial behavior, depression, and anhedonia (the inability to feel pleasure) are common in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders and in the natural aging process.

They thus suggested that a “vicious cycle” may be at play: less physical activity may promote less social engagement and lower well-being.

“Passion gives direction to the area of interest, which could be related to the dopamine system, which is central in attention, learning, goal-directed behaviors, and rewards. Passion may be providing the focus essential for long-term goal achievement,” wrote the researchers.

A recent abstract published in Nature CommunicationsTrusted Source outlines a new, easy-to-use tool that could help guide early treatment discussions for people with mHSPC.

In a nutshell, the innovative system predicts early favorable prostate-specific antigen (PSA) response in people with mHSPC who have been prescribed an androgen receptor pathway inhibitor (ARPI).

ARPI are a mainstay in the treatment of prostate cancer, and are being used increasingly often.

Although modern treatment protocols are consistently improved and updated, there is still room for improvement.

“Prostate cancer is the most common solid tumor in men, and in both the United Kingdom and the United States, it is the second leading cause of death from cancer in men,” Michael Morris, MD, told Medical News Today.

Morris, a genitourinary medical oncologist from Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center in New York, was not involved in the study. He also explained that “the global prevalence of prostate cancer is rising.”

Developing the tool

The researchers had access to patient data from three prostate cancer drug trials:

• LATITUDE (abiraterone)

• TITAN (apalutamide)

• ARASENS (darolutamide)

Of these cohorts, 1,030 participants were used to train a multivariable logistic regression model, and data from the remaining 688 was used for internal validation.

Once the model was finalized and “locked,” they further validated its performance using data from 540 participants in the enzalutamide arm of the ENZAMETTrusted Source trial.

Their final analysis concluded that the tool can accurately predict early favorable PSA responses.

Why this matters

MNT contacted the corresponding author of the study, Daniel Spratt, MD. He is a board-certified, international expert in the management of prostate cancer, based at University Hospitals in Cleveland, OH.

“Currently, we use very dull instruments to risk-stratify patients with metastatic prostate cancer,” he explained. “Most commonly, we dichotomize patients into what is called low-volume and high-volume disease.”

Although this is standard practice, it is far from ideal. “What we and others have repeatedly shown is that volume of disease poorly predicts response to treatment, including achieving a favorable PSA response to undetectable or very low levels,” Spratt told MNT.

“Our tool enables providers and patients to understand their individual probability of achieving a favorable response to standard hormone therapy with an ARPI, and if modifications to that treatment plan are needed.”

MNT also contacted former cancer researcher and Music Beats Cancer founder Mona S. Jhaveri, PhD, who was not involved in the study.

“It would be highly valuable to predict early PSA response because its values are strongly associated with progression-free overall survival,” she explained. “If we could predict response early, we could personalize treatment, enabling more targeted and safer treatments.”

In agreement, Morris told MNT, “being able to predict who will respond well and who will not respond well to standard approaches allows for the individualized treatment of patients,” he explained.

“Patients at high risk for incomplete or non-durable responses could be treated with more intensive therapies, and those with more favorable predicted responses to conventional treatments could be treated with those.” concluded Morris.

Spratt also hopes that the tool will help clinicians personalize treatments and manage the balancing act between “oncologic efficacy and toxicity from therapy.”

Additional benefits for researchers 

Spratt hopes their tool will be used for daily practice to provide information, but also be “incorporated into ongoing and future clinical trials to help select patients who may benefit from treatment intensification or de-escalation.”

Along these lines, Jhaveri told MNT that “this type of surrogate marker would help with clinical trial design and outcomes, where patients could be pooled based on their favorable PSA response.”

Next steps toward the clinic

Spratt told MNT that they have already begun the next phase of research to fine their tool.

“We have already begun validation of our model in another phase III randomized trial, and aim to then validate it in real-world data,” he said.

Jhaveri explained to MNT that “prostate cancer is not a solved problem, especially in advanced disease. Innovations that help enable earlier and more precise decision-making are urgently needed.”

Spratt believes that, “Collectively, we believe this will provide the strength in evidence to implement the tool in future clinical trials.”

According to OpenAI, ChatGPT Health aims to provide users with a more focused experience for navigating health concerns, wellness topics, and medical questions.

Clearly, there is an increasing demand for accessible and conversational health information. However, while the tools may increase access to information, ensuring accuracy, equity, and responsible use remains a critical challenge.

Speaking to Medical News Today, David Liebovitz, MD, an expert in artificial intelligence in clinical medicine at Northwestern University, shares his thoughts on how ChatGPT Health may affect the patient-doctor relationship, and how healthcare professionals (HCPs) can safely guide appropriate use of AI health tools.

Will this tool be beneficial for HCPs and help to improve patient care and interaction?

Liebovitz: Yes, with important caveats. ChatGPT Health can help patients arrive better prepared with lab trends summarized, questions organized, and care gaps identified.

That is a step up from patients bringing fragmented Google results or no preparation at all. For HCPs, this could mean more productive visit time spent understanding a patient’s values and preferences to support shared decision-making and more rapid gap closure.

The risk is overconfidence. Patients may assume AI-synthesized information is equivalent to clinical judgment or a thorough review. HCPs will need to develop new skills: validating what patients bring, correcting AI-generated misconceptions, and recognizing when the tool has missed context that changes the clinical picture entirely.

What advice would you give to HCPs when discussing ChatGPT with patients?

Liebovitz: Acknowledge the tool’s value while establishing appropriate expectations.

I’d suggest framing like: “It’s helpful for organizing your questions and understanding basic concepts, but it does not know things only I can assess, such as your physical exam, your tone during conversation, or how you have responded to treatments before.”

It is important not to dismiss patients who use it. That signals we are not listening (and these tools are getting better). Instead, ask what they found and what concerns it raised. Use it as a springboard. If they bring something incorrect, treat it as a teaching moment rather than a correction.

How can HCPs advise patients to use AI health tools safely and appropriately?

Liebovitz: Three principles:

Preparation, not diagnosis

Use it to organize and propose questions, understand terminology, or track patterns.

Proposing helpful topics or questions for discussion at the visit is then fair game, but please do not use it to conclude what is wrong, what will happen in the future, or decide on specific treatments.

For those scenarios, it will not have all the information it needs, yet will often still provide guidance that is often erroneous or needlessly anxiety-inducing.

Always verify

Anything that changes a medical decision should be considered a soft suggestion from an incomplete AI source that needs confirmation from your care team.

With that said, gaps in care are common, and there very well may be useful guidance given 2026 diagnosis and treatment complexity, but please realize that truly helpful guidance that impacts decisions may not always be present or may be buried in noisy, inappropriate suggestions, too.

Understand privacy trade-offs

Health data shared with ChatGPT is not protected by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).

Unlike conversations with physicians or therapists, there is no legal privilege. For sensitive matters such as reproductive health, mental health, substance use or other personal concerns, please understand the privacy loss before using the tool.

How can HCPs help to reduce misunderstanding when using AI-generated health advice?

Liebovitz: The biggest misunderstanding is that AI-generated information is equivalent to a second opinion from a clinician. It is not.

Large language models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT, predict plausible text; they do not verify truth or weigh clinical context the way a trained professional does. HCPs can help by being explicit: “ChatGPT can summarize information and identify patterns, but it can hallucinate, miss nuance, and lacks access to your exam, your history with me, and the things you have not told it.”

The AI tools also do not weigh evidence while providing customized guidance according to a specific patient’s preferences the way a skilled clinician does. Confidence from an AI tool does not mean correct. Responses appear with equal authority, whether it is accurate or dangerously wrong.

Looking ahead 5 years, how do you think AI will change the patient–doctor relationship?

Liebovitz: I expect AI will become an established layer in most care (and behind-the-scenes) interactions, such as handling documentation, surfacing relevant history, or flagging potential issues.

For patients, tools like ChatGPT Health will increasingly serve as a persistent health assistant/companion that helps them track, interpret, and prepare (including gap identification for discussion and helpful behavioral nudging according to a patient’s preferences).

The core of the relationship with a clinician, that is, trust, judgment, shared decision making, will not be automated.

AI-assisted physicians who learn to work with AI-assisted patients, rather than against them, will have deeper conversations in less time. The ones who avoid use of AI personally and by their patients will find patients going elsewhere, or simply not telling them what the AI said.

Why is OpenAI’s launch of ChatGPT Health significant right now, given how patients already search for health information online?

Liebovitz: Because it formalizes what was already happening informally.

Apparently, 40 million people a day were already asking ChatGPT questions, including uploading lab results, describing symptoms, seeking explanations. OpenAI is now building dedicated infrastructure around that behavior: encrypted spaces, connected medical records, and explicit guardrails.

The 21st Century Cures ActTrusted Source requires health systems to give patients access to their records via standardized APIs. ChatGPT Health is an early major consumer tool to aggregate that access at scale. Whether physicians like it or not, this changes the information asymmetry that has defined the patient-provider relationship for decades and thereby accelerates healthcare democratization.

You have said this is a ‘significant step forward from Google searches.’ What specifically makes it better, and where does it still fall short?

What makes it better

Liebovitz: ChatGPT synthesizes across sources and personalizes to the user-patient’s context.

Instead of 10 blue links with conflicting information, patients get a coherent explanation grounded in their own data, including lab trends over time, possible medication interactions, appointment preparation specific to their situation.

Where it falls short

Liebovitz: It can still hallucinate. Citations are not reliable. It lacks access to the physical exam, the clinical gestalt, the social context a skilled clinician gathers in 5 minutes of conversation.

LLM outputs optimize for plausibility, not accuracy. This makes wrong answers often sound more confident than correct ones. Critical details that a long-time physician knows about a patient may be missing. Our data systems are not fully integrated, and it is also likely that ChatGPT will have less access to full charts than physicians do.

The biggest gap

Liebovitz: No accountability. When I am wrong, there are mechanisms, including peer review, malpractice, licensing boards, my professional reputation. When ChatGPT is wrong, you can file a thumbs-down.

How do you realistically see patients using ChatGPT Health?

Liebovitz: I see five high-value scenarios:

• Pre-visit preparation: “Help me understand my recent labs and organize questions for my appointment. Pay attention to any gaps or overdue items.”

• Post-visit clarification: “My doctor mentioned X. Please explain again what that means and what I should watch for.”

• Check-ins: “Please remind me weekly if there is anything on my health to-do list or any specific healthy behaviors I should make note of based on my history.

• System navigation: “Compare my insurance options for this procedure” or “Help me appeal this coverage denial.”

• Health basics questions: If sufficiently grounded in base medical topics, potential for enhanced question/answering about general medical topics although current symptoms should be then referred to clinical care given limits noted above.

You’ve raised concerns about HIPAA protections. What do most patients misunderstand about privacy when they use AI health tools?

Liebovitz: The main misconception is that any conversation about health is protected like a conversation with their doctor. It is not.

HIPAA only covers “covered entities,” which means health plans, healthcare clearinghouses, and healthcare providers who transmit health information electronically. Consumer AI tools are not covered entities.

Therefore, when you share health information with ChatGPT, that data could theoretically be subpoenaed, accessed through legal processes, or, despite OpenAI’s stated policies, used in ways you did not anticipate.

There is nothing like patient-physician privilege. For sensitive health matters, particularly reproductive or mental health concerns in the current legal environment, that distinction matters.

Are there particular areas of health, such as mental health or reproductive care, where you would urge extra caution?

Liebovitz: Absolutely. Mental health carries unique risks: AI chatbots have been implicated in multiple suicide cases where they validated harmful ideation rather than escalating appropriately.

The Brown University study published last year documented systematic ethical violations, including reinforcing negative beliefs, creating false empathy, mishandling crisis situations. LLMs are not designed to recognize decompensation.

Reproductive care carries legal risk in addition to clinical risk. In states with abortion restrictions, any digital record of reproductive health questions becomes potential evidence.

Unlike conversations with your physician, ChatGPT conversations are not protected by legal privilege. I would also add: substance use, HIV status, genetic information, anything involving legal proceedings. The common thread is linking scenarios where disclosure, even inadvertent, carries consequences beyond clinical care.

In 2013, Alcohol Change UK started the “Dry January” campaign, where people could commit to abstaining from drinking alcohol for the entire month.

In January 2025, Alcohol Change UK reported that about 200,000 people globally signed up to participate in their Dry January challenge.

Past studies show that taking part in Dry January may offer some positive health benefits. For example, research presented in January 2019 found that those who followed Dry January had higher energy levels and a healthier body weight.

Now, a new study recently published in the journal Alcohol and Alcoholism reports that abstaining from alcohol for just one month can offer meaningful physical and psychological improvements, including better sleep, weight loss, and improved mood.

Why study ‘Dry January’? 

For this study, researchers analyzed data from 16 previously published studies on Dry January, encompassing more than 150,000 participants. Scientists focused on who took part in Dry January, the impact it had on them, and what helped them be successful in the campaign.

“Our decision to conduct this systematic review stemmed from a recognized research gap,” Megan Strowger, PhD, who at the time of the study was a postdoctoral fellow at the Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies (CAAS) in the School of Public Health at Brown University, and lead author of this study, told Medical News Today.

“Since its launch in the U.K. in 2013, Dry January’s popularity has exploded globally, turning it into a massive public health phenomenon fueled by media and online discussion,” she said.

“However, the robust, peer-reviewed scientific findings on its actual effects were not centralized or widely known,” Strowger continued. “We saw an urgent need to move past anecdotal evidence, to systematically identify all existing rigorous studies, and provide an unbiased, comprehensive assessment of the campaign’s true impact on participants’ overall health and long-term drinking behavior.”

Just 1 month of no alcohol offers many benefits

At the study’s conclusion, researchers found that Dry January participants who abstained from alcohol for the entire month reported improved sleep, better mood, enhanced ability to lose weight, increased energy, and healthier liver function and blood pressure.

“The significance of these findings is that they reveal the subtle, wide-ranging, and often unnoticed cumulative burden that alcohol places on mental and physical health,” Strowger said.

“Our review found that just a one-month break is sufficient to achieve measurable improvements across multiple systems, including better sleep, reduced blood pressure, and healthier liver function. This is incredibly encouraging.”
— Megan Strowger, PhD

“More importantly, this short-term pause serves as a powerful recalibration tool,” she added. “It gives individuals an opportunity to reflect on their relationship with alcohol and establish healthier long-term patterns, leading to sustained behavior change well beyond January.”

What tools can help me during ‘Dry January’?

Additionally, researchers discovered that study participants who used Dry January tools, like apps and daily motivation emails and texts, had a higher likelihood of completing the month alcohol-free and to continue drinking less after the month was over.

“The significance of these findings is that they underscore a crucial principle of behavioral health: willpower alone is often not enough for sustained change,” Strowger explained.

“The study demonstrates that digital tools such as the tracking apps, motivational content (emails/texts), and online community groups, are not just supplementary; they are highly effective mechanisms that significantly increase the likelihood of success and long-term reduction.”
— Megan Strowger, PhD

“These tools cumulatively provide the necessary structure, real-time tracking, motivation, and, critically, social support that helps participants maintain abstinence and build habits that last long after the 31-day challenge ends,” she added.

Short-term alcohol reduction can have tangible benefits

MNT spoke with Rachel Rohaidy, MD, psychiatrist with Miami Neuroscience Institute, part of Baptist Health South Florida, about this research, who commented her first reaction was that the findings align with what she observes clinically.

“Many of my patients who participate in Dry January report noticeable improvements in their mood, social interactions, and family relationships,” Rohaidy continued.

“Taking a break from alcohol often allows them to engage more meaningfully with loved ones, feel more present, and experience an overall sense of mental and emotional clarity. It reinforces the idea that even short-term reductions in alcohol consumption can have tangible benefits for emotional well-being and social functioning,” she explained.

Alcohol negatively impacts sleep

MNT also spoke with Sarathi Bhattacharyya, MD, pulmonologist, critical care medicine specialist, sleep medicine specialist, and medical director of MemorialCare Sleep Disorders Center in Long Beach, CA, about the study’s sleep-related findings.

“Alcohol has long been known to have a negative impact on sleep. While drinking alcohol can make you feel sleepy and reduce sleep latency (the time it takes to fall asleep), it results in a shorter overall sleep duration and fragmented sleep.”
— Sarathi Bhattacharyya, MD

“REM sleep is suppressed by alcohol, especially in the early portion of the night,” Bhattacharyya continued. “Alcohol can also worsen or unmask underlying conditions, such as sleep apnea. Finally, it can disrupt sleep further by increasing the need to urinate overnight,” Bhattacharyya said.

Tips on how to do ‘Dry January’ in 2026

For readers who want to try ‘Dry January’ or ‘Damp January’ — where you cut back on drinking during the month — we asked our experts for their top tips.

“The most successful approaches rely on preparation and social support, not sheer willpower,” Strowger said. “Registering (at Dry January USA or Alcohol Change UK) is important. Successful participants used the associated apps, emails, and online communities for structure, tracking, and motivational support. Don’t try to go it alone.”

“One key strategy I recommend is open communication. Let friends, family, and colleagues know about your goal so you can gain support and avoid feeling isolated during the process. Framing it as a shared journey or involving loved ones can make it more of a social endeavor, which increases accountability and enjoyment.”
— Rachel Rohaidy, MD

“Additionally, setting realistic goals, planning alcohol-free activities, and celebrating small milestones can help maintain motivation throughout the month,” she added.

And whether it’s Dry January or not, Bhattacharyya advised avoiding alcohol as a sleep aid or consuming alcohol at least four hours before bed.

Experts are urging Medicare recipients to carefully research their options for next year during the open enrollment period that is now under way.

They say changes in premiums and other Medicare components as well as the government shutdown could affect what they pay for medical care as well as what services are available to them.

“Millions of Medicare beneficiaries will face higher out-of-pockets costs and reduced benefits in 2026, so comparing Medicare coverage options is especially crucial this year,” Whitney Stidom, vice president of consumer enablement at eHealth, told Medical News Today.

“Beneficiaries should be proactive during the Medicare annual enrollment period, as comparing plans from multiple insurers can help people save money and find the right option for them,” Stidom added.

The open enrollment period for Medicare began on October 15 and lasts until December 7.

This eligibility window is for people 65 years and older who want to sign up for the federally funded health program or make changes to their current plans.

In addition to the usual considerations, there also may be some uncertainties added this year if the federal government shutdown lasts for an extended period of time.

One is that the processing of claims by recipients and payments to medical providers could be delayed.

Another is that telehealth services could be reduced. Some telehealth programs that were offered over the past several years expired on October 1 and Congress did not take action to renew them.

“Telehealth restrictions will lead to gaps in access for many patients, especially those who are dealing with disabilities or those living in rural areas,” said Kanwar Kelley, MD, a specialist in otolaryngology head and neck surgery, obesity medicine, and lifestyle medicine as well as the co-founder and chief executive officer of Side Health in Orinda, CA.

“Converting patients accustomed to telehealth back to in-person visits will incur costs for transportation, lost work, and time,” Kelley told MNT. “Patients with mobility issues, rural travel barriers, or caregiver constraints — who benefited most from telehealth — may face greater costs and logistical hurdles to get needed care, and delayed or avoided care can increase downstream costs and worse outcomes.”

The basic facts about Medicare

About 69 million people in the United States get health coverage under the Medicare system.

About 90% of those covered are 65 years or older. Most of those under 65 are people with specific disabilities.

Basic Medicare coverage includes what is known as Part A and Part B.

Part A covers inpatient care at hospitals, critical access hospitals, and skilled nursing facilities. It also helps cover hospice care and some home healthcare. It is estimated that only 1% of people on Part A pay a monthly premium.

Part B covers necessary medical services such as doctor’s visits, outpatient care, and ambulance services. Premiums are usually deducted from a person’s monthly Social Security check.

An estimated 51% of Medicare recipients have supplemental health insurance such as a Medicare Advantage plan.

The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) estimate there will be about 5,600 Medicare Advantage Plans available nationwide in 2026. That is close to the numbers from 2025, when the amount of options decreased from the previous year.

The number of plans available to an individual Medicare recipient varies from state to state.

In addition, some Medicare Advantage providers, including UnitedHealthcare, have said they plan to scale back their service areas and/or coverage options.

Monthly insurance premiums may change

The average Part B premium is expected to rise from $185 in 2025 to $206 in 2026. That 12% increase would be twice as high as the 2025 hike.

It would also more than offset the projected 2.7% increase in Social Security monthly benefits paid to individuals.

One reason given for these increases is that people are utilizing Part B coverage more often, resulting in lower profits for health insurance firms. In addition, more people are enrolling in Part B plans. There are also higher costs in general for hospitalization and outpatient care.

At the same time, it is projected that the average monthly premium for Medicare Advantage plans with prescription drug coverage will decrease from $16 in 2025 to $14 in 2026.

In addition, the CMS estimates that monthly premiums for standalone Part D plans will drop from $38 in 2025 to $34 in 2026. Premiums for Part D that are part of Medicare Advantage plans will dip slightly from $13 to $11 per month.

However, insurance companies will be allowed to raise Part D premiums as much as $50 per month, higher than the current $35 monthly maximum.

Experts say Medicare recipients will feel the effects of any premium increases.

“Any cost increase to medical premiums will be significant as prices are rising for other goods and services. In the end, it means less money in consumers’ pockets,” said Kelley.

Out-of-pocket costs and deductibles

The annual out-of-pocket limit for in-network services for Medicare Advantage recipients will decrease slightly from $9,350 in 2025 to $9,250 in 2026.

The annual cap on out-of-pocket expenses for Part D drugs will increase slightly from $2,000 in 2025 to $2,100 in 2026.

The maximum out-of-pocket cost for insulin will remain at $35 per month and most vaccines will still be covered under Part D.

However, earlier this year the Trump administration decided against Medicare covering the cost of GLP-1 weight-loss drugs such as Ozempic.

At the same time, the annual deductible for Part B medical coverage is projected to rise 12% in 2026 to $288.

The annual deductibles for Part D coverage are also expected to increase. Those amounts can vary, but the maximum any plan can charge will rise from $590 in 2025 to $615 in 2026.

Experts say any increases in deductibles or out-of-pocket costs will be felt.

“Changes to their deductibles, copays, and coinsurance can have a big impact on Medicare beneficiaries, especially for people who live on a fixed income. It is important that beneficiaries are confident they can afford the medical care they will need in case of an unforeseen illness or injury.”

– Whitney Stidom

Prescription drug prices

It is estimated that about 81% of Medicare recipients are also enrolled in Part D, which covers prescription drug expenses.

The number of standalone Part D plans is forecasted to decrease from 464 nationwide in 2025 to 360 in 2026. Medicare officials are expected to continue to negotiate prices for drugs covered under Part D.

Experts say that could result in discounts of 38% to 79% on list prices on 10 widely used prescriptions, including blood thinners Eliquis and Xarelto, as well as diabetes medications Januvia, Jardiance, and Farxiga.

People with Part D plans will also continue to be able to utilize an automatic prescription payment plan that spreads out drug costs over the year. People who currently have this plan will be automatically re-enrolled for 2026 unless they opt out.

Despite these price reductions, experts say some Medicare recipients could still pay more for prescription drugs.

“Although the price of Part D (drug benefits) may reduce overall, the reduction in options and changes to covered medications could result in higher costs for consumers of certain specialty medications,” Kelley noted.

Advice for Medicare recipients for 2026

An estimated 70% of Medicare recipients do not currently compare plan options.

Experts say it is important for Medicare recipients to research options and study different plans during the open enrollment period to see what is best for them financially as well as which medical services are covered.

Stidom noted that consumers should have recently received an annual “notice of change” letter from their Medicare Advantage and Part D providers, informing what will be different in 2026.

She said using a licensed insurance agency such as eHealth can save consumers as much as $1,800 a year.

“For help finding coverage, Medicare beneficiaries can start online with a private marketplace, which can help people compare plans side by side from multiple insurers,” she said. “Some websites make it convenient to compare Medicare Advantage plans based on various factors, including personal health needs, locations, prescribed drugs, and more.”

Stidom also recommended Medicare recipients closely check their Part D plans “because these plans are offered through private insurers, the year-over-year premium changes can vary.”

“Some enrollees may also see changes to their list of covered drugs or to the drug tiers that determine what patients pay for them out of pocket,” she noted.